Changes in the Seasonal Influenza a (H3N2) Viruses NS Gene

Changes in the Seasonal Influenza a (H3N2) Viruses NS Gene Analysis of Amino Acid Sequence and Identifying of Changes in the Influenza  A/(H3N2) virus NS Gene in Isolates from Iran Lawal D. Rogo,  Farhad Rezaei,  Nazanin Z. Shafiei Jandaghi,  Nastaran Ghavami,  Ghazal-Sadat Fateminasab,  Talat Mokhtari-Azad Subject: Medical Sciences Keywords: Influenza A (H3N2) virus, Iran, Mutation, NS1 gene. Abstract The main functions of NS protein of influenza A virus is suppressing of type I IFN production by the host. Insight on the level of changes in the seasonal influenza A (H3N2) viruses NS gene in Iran is little. We sequence and analyzed amino acid of NS gene of 32 influenza A (H3N2) virus isolates for the purpose of getting detailed information about the genetic changes in this gene. Amino acid sequence revealed 5 different changes in NS1protein. Three of which are fixed amino acid changes E26K, D209N and K229E while 10 (31.3%) T58P and 5 (15.6%) A86S amino acid changes were also observed. There was no change observed in nuclear export protein (NEP). The study provides an insight on mutations in NS gene occurring in this viral gene in the country that has not been reported elsewhere. Keywords: Influenza A (H3N2) virus, Iran, Mutation, NS1 gene. Introduction: Influenza viruses have been widely studied due to their pandemic capability. This capabilities have resulted in more mortality and severe disease in the general population, the most notable being the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 and 19191. Mechanism of virulence for these viruses is on their capacity to cause immunopathogenesis. Synthesis of two mRNAs from the eighth vRNA segment of the viral gene was known by Influenza A virus. The early encodes NS1 protein, and the later is produced by splicing of NS1 mRNA that is translated into a protein which localizes in the cell nucleus that was formally named NS2 but were now renamed the nuclear export protein (NEP) 2,3. NS1 protein is translated from the mRNA directly and consists of 124–237 amino acids (aa), depending on the virus strain 4- 6. The currently circulating Influenza A/H3N2 virus in Iranian population from this research is 230 aa-long. NS1 protein is made of two important domains: N-terminal RNA-binding domain (1–73) and C-terminal effector domain (73–237) residues 7. Though NS1 protein has different roles, one of its main actions is to alter type I IFN production by the host8, acts after transcription to prevent the 3 ´-end processing of host mRNA involving IFN mRNA by attaching to cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 30 (CPSF30) and poly-A-binding protein nuclear I 9,10 . One hundred and twenty one amino acid-long proteins were translated from mRNA of NS2/NEP11. In the current study it is 120 aa-long. It may promote production of a stable export complex of new viral RNP. In alliance with matrix protein 1(M1), it interacts with cellular export factor (CEF1) and modulates nuclear export of viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes by connecting cellular export machinery with vRNPs 14. NS gene implication in virulence and replication of the virus is well-documented. It has been shown that both NS1 F103L and M106I were adaptive changes that promoted replicative capacities in cells of different species and also virulence in the mouse lung15. NS1 is one of multifunctional protein determinant of virulence with several functions in different ways to counteract the cellular innate immune response 14. It has been reported that H5N1 virus was able to interfere with IFN-ÃŽ ² activation due to properties of its NS1 gene, inhabiting F103L and M106I changes and also nature of its NP and PA genes15. Avian influenza viruses sequence analysis shows that NS1 protein C-terminal four residues is a probable PDZ domain ligand (PL) of the X-S/T-X-V type 16. Protein–protein recognition modulation that organizes diverse cell signaling assemblies was shown to be function PDZ domains. It was known to plays important roles in the cell recognition process. Ninety percent of the human influenza viruses with RSKV or RSEV in NS1 protein were shown to have a C-terminal four-residue PL sequence. High mortality outbreaks of the recent time known to be of avian origin and therefore contain avian-like NS1 C-terminal PL residues of ESEV or EPEV which are incriminated to about 7% of Homo sapiens viruses consist of H5N1 isolates. It was reported that avian viruses NS1 proteins bind to ≈30 known human PDZ domain-containing proteins, and NS1 proteins for human attaching to PDZ domain-containing proteins was not noticed 14. It has been reported that C terminus of the NS1 substitution with KSEV from the 1918 H1N1 virus increased pathogenicity as observed by morphological changes of lung sections, though the virus was shown to causes less weight loss in mice in contrast with viruses harboring the H5N1 HPAI14. Previous studies have identified a change in NS1 gene (S42P, D92E and V149A) with regard to the involvement of NS1 protein in virulence that increased viral pathogenicity17-19. NS gene extent of variation in the influenza A (H3N2) viruses in Iran in recent years has not been described. Presently analysis of NS gene of 32 isolates where carried out from Iranian population in order to secure more detailed information about its phylogeny and genetic changes, and compare the changes found in these strains, the vaccine strain and other isolates from countries in northern hemisphere. The aim of the study is sequence analysis of amino acid and identification of changes in the NS gene of influenza A (H3N2) virus isolated in Iran that may affect the functions of this protein in pathogenesis. Methods: Two hundred and fourteen specimens of patients with respiratory illness were obtained from the National Influenza Centre at School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences. It was cultured in MDCK cell line following WHO guide line for influenza A virus isolation. RNA extraction was carried out with High Pure Viral Nucleic acid extraction kit (Roche Diagnostic, Germany) according to manufacturer’s protocol. Real-Time RT-PCR was carried out for the detection of Influenza viruses. Ninety specimens were positive for influenza A/H3N2 virus. NS gene was amplified using one-step RT-PCR kit (Qiagen) and specific primers (NSH3N2-F:5 ´-AGCAAAAGCAGGGTGACAAAGA-3 ´ and NSH3N2-R:5 ´-GAGAAAGTTCTTATCTCCTGTTCCA-3 ´). The condition for the RT-PCR was as follows: Reverse transcription at 50 °C for 40 minutes, initial PCR activation at 95 °C for 10 minutes, Denaturation at 95 °C for 30 second, Annealing at 57 °C for 30 second, Extension at 72 °C for 1 minutes (for 40 cycles) and a final extension at 75 °C for 10 minutes. The PCR products were purified using Qiaquick gel purification kit (Qiagen) according to manufacturer’s instruction. Samples were sequenced using specific primers and Big Dye terminator v3.1 cycle sequencing kit with the genetic analyzer ABI 3130 in the National Influenza Laboratory. Sequence alignment was done using BIOEDIT and ClustalW program20. Sequence alignment revealed similarities amongst the isolates. NS gene sequences of 32 influenza A/H3N2 virus strains isolated in this study out of 90 sequenced were selected base on the site of sample collection, compared and analyzed with the vaccine strain and the sequences obtainable from other countries in the northern hemisphere already deposited in GenBank. Phylogenetic tree construction were performed using MEGA Software version 5.05 21. Result Isolates represent samples collected from June 2013 to March 2014. In the current study 230 aa were found in NS1 while the NS2/NEP had 120 amino acids. Analysis depicted relationship phylogenetically that shows there are exact clusters of the virus suggestive of co-circulation of multiple sub-lineages (Figure 1). In respect to genetic variation, H3 numbering system of amino acid was used in naming the detected amino acid changes 13, 14. Substitutions were found in 26, 58, 86, 209 and 229 aa positions in NS1 protein, respectively (Table 1). There was no amino substitution in regard to NS2/NEP found. NS1 proteins have fixed amino acid substitution at positions 26, 209 and 229 in the current study. At position 26, it occurs as a result of substitution at the 76-78 Codon from GAA to AAA causing a glutamate to lysine substitution. In position 209, substitution occurs at 625-627 Codon from GAT to AAT causing an aspartate to asparagine substitution. While in position 229, substitution occurs at 685 – 687 Codon from AAA to GAA causing a lysine to glutamate substitution. Another 10 (30.3%) NS1 proteins substitution occurs at (58 amino acid position) 172-174 Codon from ACC to CCC causing a threonine to proline substitution. Also 5 (15.2%) of the NS1 proteins substitution occurs at (amino acid po sition 86) 256-258 Codon from GCT to TCT causing an alanine to serine substitution. Figure 1 Relationship of the NS nucleotide coding region phylogenetically of influenza viruses used in this study. Neighbor-joining analysis with Tamura-Neibour model, using MEGA 5.05 was used to generate the tree. Circular black dot represent studied samples and triangular black dot represent vaccine strain. Table 1: Amino acid changes of NS1 protein of influenza A/H3N2 virus strains from Iranian Population compared with vaccine strain and other countries in northern hemisphere. Virus isolates Amino acid at indicated position in NS1 protein 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 5 8 8 8 1 2 3 3 4 6 0 0 2 6 8 0 5 6 1 9 5 9 0 4 4 9 9 NS2/NEP analysis does not reveal any amino acid change in the present study (Table 2). Nucleotide sequence data obtained has been deposited to GenBank database and can be retrieved under accession numbers KP162026- KP162056 and KP209320. Table 2: Amino acid changes of NS2/NEP protein of influenza A/H3N2 virus strains from Iranian Population compared with vaccine strain and other countries in northern hemisphere. Virus isolates Amino acid at indicated position in NS2 protein 47 88 A/Texas/50/2012 E R A/Tehran/77254/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Eslamshahr/73061/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Eslamshahr/73060/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/74551/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran /44573/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/69904/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Sanandaj/65990/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Ilam/55882/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/77150/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran /78183/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/60708/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/57157/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/69969/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Tehran/69640/2014 †¢ †¢ A/Varamin/78055/2014 †¢ †¢

Doubting Religion in Wallace Stevens Sunday Morning Essay -- Poem Poe

Doubting Religion in Wallace Stevens' Sunday Morning Voice is an integral part of Wallace Stevens' "Sunday Morning." The voice of the poem is not the woman's, but that of an outside narrator who seems to give words to the feelings that the woman experiences. The dramatic situation is created during the first stanza. The woman, still in her peignoir, is taking "late coffee and oranges in a sunny chair" on a bright Sunday morning instead of attending church. The quiet of the scene is evident, and the "holy hush" provides the woman with the perfect environment for introspection. The poetic problem arises when the woman, in her liminal state of mind, is troubled with conflicting emotions about life, death, and Christianity. The first thought that encroaches upon the woman's daydreams and darkens the atmosphere is that of a solemn "procession of the dead" to Palestine. Her interaction with the procession is interesting because it symbolizes the journey she is making in her mind and sets the tone for later religious questioning in the poem. The second stanza begins with a series of rhetorical questions that express the woman's inner struggle. The second question is her response to the dark encroachment of the procession, and the third question answers the previous two. The randomness of this questioning illustrates the disorganized nature of her thinking, and an answer finally surfaces when she decides that "divinity must live within herself." A list of positive and negative emotions that she has experienced as a result of nature provides further explanation of the divinity she hopes she possesses within. The realization that these emotions "are the measures destined for her soul" ends the stanza with a feeling of hopefulness. Reli... ...ained in the seventh when Stevens depicts pre-Christian ideals such as the ancient worship of the sun as a god. Here, the blood of the turbulent, chanting men leaves them and returns to the sky in a process similar to the commingling human blood with the blood of heaven in the third stanza A few other philosophical observations result from this stanza, including the suggestion that Gods are humanly created and the idea that men are a part of nature. The last stanza of "Sunday Morning" reiterates the feeling of solitude that the woman experiences in the first stanza, but the tone has changed. The image of silent water again dominates the scene, and her religious questioning continues. She is still suspended in a disorganized state of mind, but there is a feeling of acceptance of the ambiguity of life that is not replaced with the peace of mind and hopes of happiness.

Effectiveness of Monetory Policy

Various studies have reflected the existence of a positive relationship between the increase of money supply and the level of inflation. Generally, this is reflected by the continued rise of prices of the various products. A situation ensues where excess amounts of money tend to be chasing too few goods. In this perspective, this study tested on whether monetary policy is an effective tool in the combating of inflation and ensuring price stability. The first and foremost objective of the central bank is to formulation and implementation of the monetary policy for maintaining the values of local currency.Otherwise the living standard of the general people may go down. This study finds out the money supply has a direct impact on the level of inflation. Statistically, money supply has a statistical significance on the level of inflation in the country. Thus, monetary policies aimed at controlling the amount of money supply in the economy, have a tremendous impact on controlling the leve l of inflation 2. Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study revolved around exploring the significance and the suitability of the monetary policy in realizing macroeconomic goals.Some of these macroeconomic objectives included price stability, economic growth, full employment, and a favorable balance of payment. 3. Specific Objective Find out the effectiveness of monetary policy in ensuring price Stability & preserving the value of local currency by combating of inflation. 4. Introduction Since time immemorial, inflation has always been an issue of extreme sensitivity. This accrues to the fact that a case of inflation has overall effect on the prices of commodities. An instance of spiraling, uncontrollable inflation is usually a sign of impending catastrophic doom.Thus, the control of monetary policy has turned out to be an essential function of all governments in the world. Inflation does not necessarily have to be reflected a continued increase in the prices of commoditi es (hyperinflation), the vice versa can also be a reflection of inflation (deflation). However, both situations are more than unhealthy for the economy. In most economic situations, the major reasons for the inception of inflation are a culmination of excessive demand for products. The necessary economic policy would thus be entrenched on looking at the causes of an unnecessary rise.This way, they can thus be able to come up with the right measures that can aid in controlling the existing verbal demand in an economy. To this end, various researchers have established the ability of monetary policy as a tool for controlling inflation. All over the world, in diverse economies, monetary policy has been seen as an approach to effectively control inflation. This is reflected by the ability of monetary policy in controlling the rise in demand by an increase in the available rates of interest.In addition, monetary policy reduces the existing real money in the economy. A rise in the interest manages to bring an overall reduction in collective demand in an economy. To this end, this Essay aims at looking at how effective monetary policy as a tool for ensuring price stability. 5. Background Analysis Monetary policy is defined as a public interventionist action that aims at manipulating the level and array of economic activity so as to accomplish specific, desired goals.Specifically, monetary policies are aimed to work fewer than two economic variables that affect the level of inflation in an economy. The two aggregate variables are supply of money in circulation and the respective interest rate in an economy. Monetary policy is among the few tools that a national government can utilize to control the economy using the given monetary authority in the control of the supply and availability of money. Controlling the availability, leading to a control of access, ultimately influences the demand of products.The law of demand ultimately reflects that an increase in demand for products of products leads to an increase in prices. Demand is in turn influenced by the availability of money in the economy. Thus, direct or indirect control of money leads to an ultimate control of inflation. In most instances, governments try to influence an overall level of economic activities to be in line with individual objectives. Some of these objectives include socio cultural, political, economic, and technological objectives.Generally, the main aim of governments is the existence of a macroeconomic stability. Usually, macroeconomic stability encompasses stable prices, economic growth, full employment, balance of external payment, and development in a country. Generally, it is the Job of the central bank of any nation to come up with, and implement, monetary policies that aim at achieving stability in the expected price level of products in a country. However, the major aim is to attain stability in prices so as to be able to sustain the existing value of the currency in a particular country.All economies of the world endeavored to create a central bank as a means of safeguarding the value of individual currency. In the case of integrated economies, there exist geographical banks and one major bank for the respective organization. For example, various American states have federal banks to check on their currency. In addition, an overall control is exhibited by the Central Bank of America. In addition, monetary policy is a major tool exploited in a battle of preserving a runners in an economy. 6.Literature Review Theory has proposed several ways in which inflation can be combated; this essay is concerned with the literature that led to the use of such instruments and policies. To enable us understand the prepositions made the study analyzed several theories: 7. The Classical Quantity Theory of Money This theory was developed by Irving Fisher. Fisher took the view that money was only used as a medium of exchange to settle transaction involving the dem and and supply for goods and services. The quantity theory of money can be developed to a theory of price levels.Since NV=APT Where V – Velocity of circulation M -Money supply p _ price T -Quantity of transactions Assuming that V and T are roughly constant, P will vary directly with increase or decrease in the amount of M and it changes in money supply (M) that causes the prices (P) to change, not changes in price that cause the changes in supply is assumed to be constant as the economy in question is assumed to be operating at full employment. If the velocity of circulation is more or less constant than any growth in money supply (M) over and above the potential of the economy to increase, T will cause inflation.This is then consistent with the monetary policy to curb inflation by controlling the money supply in the economy as it leads to inflation. A further notable feature in this theory is that the government monetary policy should allow some growth in money supply if the economy is growing but not let the growth in money supply to get out of hand as if output in the economy (T) is growing and the velocity of circulation (V) is constant then a matching growth in the money supply of money is needed to avoid deflation. . The Monetarist Policy Theory Monetarists argue that since money is a direct substitute for all other assets, an increase in the supply of money supply, given a fairly stable velocity of circulation, will have a direct effect on the demand for other assets since there will be more money to spend on those assets. If the total output of the economy is fixed, then an increase in the money supply will lead directly to higher prices.Monetarists therefore reach the same conclusion as the old quantity theory of money that a rise in money supply will lead directly to a rise in prices and probably also too rise in money incomes, an increase in real output and so an increase in employment. In the long run however, they argue that all increases i n the money supply will be reflected in higher prices unless there is a long term growth in the economy. Monetarist school of economic thought contended that money supply is a key determinant of the level of production the short run and the rate of inflation in the long run.In order to minimize uncertainty monetarist advocated for the maintenance of a constant rate of growth of money supply. Developing countries have depended on monetary policy in order to achieve price stability, economic growth and development, positive balance of payments and full employment. To contain any reduction in GAP the Central Bank adopted a selective credit control and special attention was given to the interests of marginal traders and productive agents in Agriculture. 9. Tools of Monetary Policy : There are three tools of monetary policy for which the value of money changes.For ensuring price stability monetary policy has to focus on these three tools. Monetary Policy of Bangladesh Bank The aim is to achieve the twin goals of containing inflation and promoting sustained and stable economic growth; provide policy advice to the Government on deficit managing and public debt management; manage the balance of payments and foreign exchange reserves; provide payment services and ensure the stability of the financial system; conduct treasury and government securities related operations; and efficiently perform other international financial activities.Financial Sector Developments Critical activities cover the development of the financial systems; provide effective prudential supervision; ensure information access, market intelligence, and contingency planning to avoid systematic risks; assist banking and financial entities o become efficient and competitive; discover new modalities for delivering agricultural and industrial term credit; enhance the access of small and medium enterprises to investment funds; further develop the market in public and private debt and risk capital; and pro mote measures for inclusion of people hitherto bypassed in formal financial systems.In addition, the Bangladesh Bank will continuously adopt necessary measures for taking a proactive stance in decision making; compiling relevant statistics and conducting high quality and timely economic research to review the country financial and economic conditions to purport decision making; ensuring efficient and professional management of Bib's human and financial resources; and establishing Bib's distinct identity based on its values and strategic roles.In order to uphold the mission, Bangladesh Banks aim would be to provide the required leadership by discharging its duties in a manner that shows a clear vision, is watchful, far-sighted, intelligent and responsive based on an effective and efficient communication strategy. At all times, Bib's aim would be to remain committed, efficient, capable, logistically supported, speedy, focused, and aggressive where necessary in order to ensure that the Bangladesh Bank always remains a credible and prestigious institution with an efficient organizational structure committed to achieving its goals. 9. Interest rate policy This arises where the central bank increases the rate of interest rates for borrowing funds. This instrument is most applicable in cases where banks turn to the central banks as an avenue of securing funds. The rates that can be increased include the overnight borrowing rate. This tends to discourage borrowing which then end up reducing the rate of inflation in an economy. So interest rate is a crucial important to sustain the price stability. Comparison of Interest Rate in Bangladesh Source: 1 . Statistics Department, Bangladesh Bank for Scheduled Banks Weighted Average Interest Rate. . Debt Management Department, Bangladesh Bank for Weighted Average Call Money Market Rates. 9. 2 Inflation Targeting This is an economic monetary inflation policy aimed at achieving a specific level of inflation in the country. This involves the setting of a certain level of inflation by the central bank, and then working towards achieving the given level of inflation. This is usually done through the utilization of interest rate changes and other monetary tools. Despite the embracing of the above monetary policies, many countries still find themselves being faced by extreme inflation rates.The rates end up eroding the value of the specific currency. A devaluation of currency ends up creating an unfavorable balance of payment and hence accumulation of debts and deficit budgets. In this perspective, third world countries continue to remain poor despite their rigorous endeavors aimed at escaping the unfavorable economic situation. In mimes of political tumult, monetary policy also tends to be ineffective in cases of political turmoil. The matter is further aggravated when political instability combines with economic shocks.This leads to a culmination of extreme inflation being witnessed in a country. An epitome of this was witnessed in Bangladesh during the period of Care taker Government of 2007-2008. The prices of basic commodities soared to the extent that they were virtually impossible to the average man. In addition, the monetary policies set out to correct out the situation ended up being ineffective in the control of the ensuing inflation. Economic shocks such as depressions, recessions, and booms also render monetary policies ineffective. This was witnessed during the 2008/09 economic recession all over the world.During the recession, major world economies faced harsh circumstances despite having well formulated monetary policies in place. The available strategies failed to stir the economy back to stability. 9. 3 Foreign Exchange Valuation Figure of Inflation Rate in Bangladesh A method for providing an interface for Foreign Exchange trading centered on a Foreign Exchange rate and this rate is an important factor of value changing of money. So the foreign exchange rate is an impor tant factor for monetary policy. Comparative Figure of exchange Rate in Bangladesh 10.Monetary Policy Instruments: There exist a variety of monetary policy instruments through which the central bank controls/ maintains general price level. Some of these tools include the following: 10. 1 Open Market Operations: Open market operations refer to the sale or purchase of securities. The transactions usually take place in the open market of the central bank. This instrument usually targets the available cash balances of commercial banks and other non bank institutions. The available balances are checked in relation to excess reserves available at the central bank.The major aim of this tool is the attainment of a predetermined level of reserve money. A situation of influenced commercial bank lending ensues hence an overall control of money supply in the economy. 10. Ii. Setting the bank rate: Central bank sets a bank rate for its borrowers. To maintain the general price level, central bank changes the rate time to time. If it wants to take the additional money from the market, it rises the interest rate on the other hand if there is shortage of money in the market it reduces the rate to make balance and control the price level. 0. Iii. Adjusting Reserve Ratio Reserve Ratio is also known as liquidity asset ratio is defined as the proportion of total assets being held by a bank. Every commercial bank has to maintain a reserve of liquid money to the central bank which is called SSL (Statutory Liquidity Ratio). This is usually in the form of liquid assets and cash. This instrument is effective since it manages to indiscriminately affect all banks. Also, the method tends to be directly established and the effects of its implementation are felt soon after its inception.The intended purpose of the tool is usually to create a situation where a banks free cash base is reduced. This reduces a banks ability to give out loans and advances and creates an overall reduction of avai lability of money. The reduction of excess money supply ends up curbing prices and inflation. 10. Lb. Moral Suasion It is one of the qualitative instruments of controlling general price level through persuasion at a moral sight not to disburse more loans to the particular bank. Persuasion not to give out loan to the any particular sector to control money supply . 10. V. Certain Margin RequirementsEvery importer has to keep a certain margin at the time of opening any LLC to the commercial banks to import goods from foreign countries. This marginal money becomes locked up to the bank until the goods are imported and the transaction is settled. This margin level is determined by the central bank and trough setting up new margin requirements central bank can maintain the general price level. 10. V'. Selective Credit Control These instruments prevail on the quantitative measure of credit control that strives at encouraging selective essential sectors of the economy while at the same time discouraging others.In one such instance, the Central Bank of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Bank can ensue to restrict government borrowing up to a given extent. Normally, the given legal limit is 5 percent of the most recent audited government ordinary revenues. Usually, this aims at reducing a case of excess government expenditure. A case of excess government spending leads to a situation of inflationary crisis. 1 1 . Failure of Monetary Policy in Developing Countries Despite the widespread success of monetary policies, there exists a tendency of failure of the policy in developing economies.The failure can be attributed to a yard of reasons. Some of the reasons include the following: I) In developing economies, markets and financial institutions tend to be highly disorganized. The lack of well developed capital and money markets and a limited quantity and range of financial assets creates and atmosphere that leads to the failure of monetary policy. It) In some instances, monetary polic ies end up being misused by the authorities. This leads to a situation where the monetary policies fail to address the situation at hand. Ii) In third world countries, commercial banks tend to have excess funds due to lack of viable projects and borrowers. This reduces the sensitivity of their cash base. In this case, the effectiveness of open market operations ends up being severely limited. Iv) The existence of high levels of corruption ends up rendering some instruments like selective credit control to be ineffective. V) Illiteracy in the developing countries ensures that individuals have little or no knowledge on the working of monetary policy. This reduces the effectiveness of monetary policy. Ii) Most individuals in developing countries prefer personal storage of money as opposed to bank deposits. This ends up reducing the effectiveness of Central Bank's endeavors 12. Conclusion To establish the effectiveness of monetary policy as a tool for combating inflation, The variables investigated were the level of inflation, commercial banks interest rates, money supply and the foreign exchange rate (measurable in dollars) and money supply was found out to be most significant factor affecting the rate of inflation.When money supply increases by one hundred billion the rate of inflation increases by 5. 478 . This being so, then it means that any increase in money supply should be managed to a level that allows the economy to grow and also high enough to avoid fellatio (a situation where the prices are falling) This is due to the fact that, if money supply is zero and the other factors are also zero, there will be a deflation of 18. 042. This means that the economy is not growing hence adversely affects the other objectives of macroeconomics.Also, it is evident that there exist a positive relationship between increase in foreign exchange rate and the rate of inflation; when the currency depreciates at a rate of one, inflation increases at a rate of 0. 233. Therefo re efforts should be made to avoid any rise in foreign exchange or any appreciation in the domestic currency. Also, this research showed that there exist a negative relationship between the rate of inflation and the commercial banks interest rates.When the commercial banks interest rates increase by one percent, the rate of inflation reduces by 0. 84. Thus, increase in interest rates is one way of controlling the rate of inflation. However, the rates of interest should be managed at a level that does not hurt investments as high interest rates hinders investments and this leads to poor economic growth hence it adversely affects the other macroeconomic objectives. Apart from the macroeconomic variables discussed above it is also evident other factors influence the rate of inflation.Some of these factors include political instability, tribal clashes, international financial crisis (recession and depression ) amongst others. Inflation targeting (where the monetary authorities set a cer tain target and manages the macroeconomic variables towards achieving that inflation rate) as policy should also be used as this has shown positive results in some parts of the world such as South Africa. Thus, monetary policy, as a tool for controlling inflation, is effective

Animal Rights And Human Rights - 1627 Words

Animal rights is a very controversial topic in today’s world. This controversy began back in 1975 when Peter Singer’s novel Animal Liberation was published. In the book, Singer explains the issues we still face at the top of animal protectionism today. Although Singer and his theories enlightened a lot of people of animal protectionism, he actually did not start the animal rights debate. People started questioning the status of animals all the way back to ancient Greece. Some people in these times such as Pythagoras, the great mathematician, chose to live as a vegetarian because he believed animals deserved different protections. We now know humans have been fighting for animal rights for longer than expected. Although many people believe that the legislation of animal rights is more than necessary, others can argue that human rights come before animal rights. We will start our debate with the views of those who favor animals rights. The whole idea is founded on the b elief that non-human animals have the same interests and rights as human beings. Animal rights activists seek to include non-human animals in the same moral community that humans belong. The movement is trying to encourage others to respect and consider the interests of a non-human animal in the same way they would a human’s interests. In reality, adopting animal rights would mean non-human animals would not be used in the process of making food, clothing, entertainment, or for experimentation. People whoShow MoreRelatedAnimal Rights And Human Rights923 Words   |  4 Pages Animal Rights â€Å"Nearly as many, 68 percent, were concerned or very concerned about the well-being of animals used in ‘sports’ or contests as well as animals in laboratories (67 percent) (Kretzer, 1).† Many people question whether an animal is capable of thought and emotions. Others feel as though animals are the equivalent of humans and should be treated as such. Since the 1800’s, animal rights has been a topic that has several different sides including two extremes. If animals can react to theirRead MoreHuman Rights : Animal Rights Essay1490 Words   |  6 Pages Animal Rights Name Institutional Affiliation â€Æ' Animal Rights Animal rights as well as animal welfare are different concepts that identify variant points in a continuum that extends from the exploitation of animals to the animal liberation. Animal rights can be perceived as the belief in the fact that humans have no right to take advantage of animals for their gains, in the farms, labs entertainment orRead MoreAnimal Rights And Human Rights1808 Words   |  8 PagesThe idea that animals have rights seems to be heavily agreed on by a large majority of scholars whom have studied this topic. However, what comes into question is understanding the severity and range of these rights. How do we determine the level of animal rights? How do we understand animal rights in relation to human rights? This paper aims to address these questions by showing that animals have the basic rights to live a life without harm, but cannot have equal rights to humans because of ourRead MoreAnimal Rights And Human Rights1857 Words   |  8 PagesWhether we think about it or not, our views on animal rights affect the choices we make every day from the foods we eat, the clothes we wear, the products we use on our skin, the medicine we take, and even the pets we may or may not keep in our home. Each of these choices hinge on our views of animal rights. Although animal rights are not a new issue we are facing here in the U.S., recent events have brought them back into the foreground. News stories like the slaying of Cecil the lion, and HarambeRead MoreAnimal Rights, Human Wrongs929 Words   |  4 PagesComparing Animal and Human Rights Should animals be used for humans joy or prosperity? People still are yet to agree on if animals should be basically used for anything that humans want, or if animals deserve their own rights. The viewpoint from animal believers is that there are no advantages fro using animals, but from a scientist and researchers viewpoint animals can be helped and are necessary for human’s existence. In both essays, â€Å"Animal Rights, Human Wrongs† by Tom Regan and â€Å"Proud to beRead MoreAnimal Rights And Human Cruelty1908 Words   |  8 Pages(iii) Animal Rights Once rights are granted to certain groups of people, more and different types of group also starts asking for rights. This is an example of a â€Å"slippery slope† argument. Similarly, there are groups of people who advocates for the rights of animals. They are speaking out against cruelty that animals have to go through like slaughtering them for food, conducting different kinds of experiments on them, etc. While pro-animal rights people argue about those types of â€Å"cruelty,† anotherRead MoreAnimal Rights and Human Wrongs6049 Words   |  25 Pages5 Animal Rights and Human Wrongs Hugh LaFollette Are there limits on how human beings can legitimately treat non-human animals? Or can we treat them just any way we please? If there are limits, what are they? Are they sufficiently strong, as som e peop le supp ose, to lead us to be veg etarians and to se riously curtail, if not eliminate, our use of non-human animals in `scientific experiments designed to benefit us? To fully ap preciate this question let me contrast it with two differentRead MoreP.E.T.A.: Animal Rights, Human Abuse1707 Words   |  7 PagesWith over 850,000 active members, the animal rights organization People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has blossomed into an exceptionally powerful speech community. Their main goal is to enlighten others about the prominent existence of animal cruelty in the world, hoping to gain enough power to abolish it, or at least prevent it from happening as often as it does. PETA uses language as a tool of power, verbalizing its message through controversial ad campaigns, ralli es, marches and protestsRead MoreAnimal Rights vs Human Morals Essay1468 Words   |  6 Pages Rights come from the ability to think not the ability to suffer. Many people can agree that animals need rights to be able to stay alive and be safe. But ask yourself is that really the only solution to saving animals? In my case, I believe that is not the only solution, for animals to be safe people need to realize it’s their fault animals are put through suffrage. Animal’s lives are put on the line due to the actions of human beings. Animals do not need rights to be protected. Human beings needRead MoreShould Animals Be Granted The Rights And Protection Of Humans?1152 Words   |  5 PagesIf animals are so different from humans, then why should they be granted the rights and protection of humans as stated in our Constitution (Hurley, 1999, p. 49)? As the Bible states in Genesis 1:26, â€Å"And God said... Let them [human beings] have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth,†(â€Å"ProCon.org†, 2015). Mankind has rule over animals, to respect them a nd love them, but also to use them as necessary (Harnack, 1996). The American